WISE INTERVENTIONS

GLOSSARY

* tHE BIG PICTURE

* Three families of Psychological Processes

* INTERVENTION TECHNIQUES

* ReferenceS

Intervention of the day

Wilson & Linville, 1985: Learning and reflecting about academic difficulties as normal and temporary improved academic performance among undergraduates
Need to Understand
Increasing commitment through action
Education

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1. By the family of psychological process the intervention targets. These families represent three basic motivations that drive how people make sense of important matters in their lives.

  • To understand things as best they can (Need to Understand)
  • To think well of themselves (Need for Self-Integrity)
  • To feel connected to others (Need to Belong)

To learn more, click here.

2. By the specific psychological question people have about themselves, others, or a situation. These questions are nested within the three families of psychological processes. You need to filter by the family of psychological process to use this filter.

3. By the social area (e.g., health, education, work) addressed by the intervention.

4. By the intervention technique used to help people make sense of matters constructively. To learn more, click here

Family of PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESS

Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Other People and Groups 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need for Self-integrity
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Link Self-Integrity to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 

Psychological question
‍

Social
area
‍

Civic behavior
Crime
Education
Health
Intergroup relationships
Interpersonal relationships and behavior
Poverty
Retirement savings
Sustainability
Well-Being
Work

INTERVENTION TECHNIQUE
‍

Active reflection
Direct labeling
Increasing commitment through action
Prompting new meanings
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Huang & Aaker (2019), Study 1
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Link Self-Integrity to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Understand
Active reflection
Who could I become?
Education
Huang & Aaker (2019), Study 5
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Link Self-Integrity to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Understand
Active reflection
Who could I become?
Health
Huang & Aaker (2019), Study 6
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Link Self-Integrity to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Understand
Active reflection
Am I working together with others to accomplish personal or collective goals?
Education
Kizilcec et al., 2017, Experiment 2-Affirmation: Affirming values increased course persistence among students from less-developed countries and increased completion rates among students from more developed countries
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Increasing commitment through action
Am I under threat, because could I be seen or treated negatively because of my group identity?
Education
Kizilcec et al., 2017, Experiment 1-Affirmation: Affirming values doubled course persistence among students from less developed countries
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Increasing commitment through action
Am I under threat, because could I be seen or treated negatively because of my group identity?
Education
Turetsky & Sanderson, 2018: Participating in workshops discussing social norms or mental health myths improved health-seeking attitudes among undergraduates over two months
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Are social norms that contribute to negative behaviors accurate or valid?
Health
Strahan et al., 2008: Critiquing thin body ideals decreased likelihood of basing self-worth on appearance and increased body satisfaction among female adolescents over a week
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Are social norms that contribute to negative behaviors accurate or valid?
Health
Schroeder & Prentice, 1998: Learning how drinking could be uncomfortable for other students decreased alcohol intake among first-year undergraduatesover four to six months
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Are social norms that contribute to negative behaviors accurate or valid?
Health
Halliwell & Diedrichs, 2014: Critiquing beauty ideals and myths in group sessions decreased body dissatisfaction among adolescent girls over a month
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Are social norms that contribute to negative behaviors accurate or valid?
Health
DeJong et al., 2009: Using marketing campaigns involving social norms had no effect on alcohol consumption among college students
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Are social norms that contribute to negative behaviors accurate or valid?
Health
DeJong et al., 2006: Using marketing campaigns involving social norms decreased alcohol consumption among college students
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Are social norms that contribute to negative behaviors accurate or valid?
Health
Howe et al., under review, Study 3: Learning that most people on campus had reduced their paper towel use and inviting them to join the cause decreased paper-towel use over two weeks
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Direct labeling
Are people working together to accomplish collective goals?
Sustainability
Sparkman & Walton, 2017 Experiment 5: Learning that people are incresaingly using full loads when doing laundry reduced water usage among Stanford students over three weeks
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Direct labeling
Is what is typical or valued changing?
Sustainability
Sparkman & Walton, 2017 Experiment 4: Learning that people are increasingly limiting their meat consumption increased likelihood of ordering lunch without meat
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Direct labeling
Is what is typical or valued changing?
Sustainability
Weisburd et al., 2011: Encouraging police officers to address social and physical disorder had no effect on residents' attitudes towards crime or the police over seven months
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
What is typical or valued here?
Crime
Goldstein et al., 2008, Experiment 2: Placing signs in hotel bathrooms about how most guests reused their towels or appealing to guests' identities increased such behavior among guests
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Direct labeling
What is typical or valued here?
Sustainability
Goldstein et al., 2008, Experiment 1: Placing signs in hotel bathrooms about how most guests reused their towels increased such behavior among guests
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Direct labeling
What is typical or valued here?
Sustainability
Braga et al., 1999: Cleaning up signs of physical disorder in crime hotspots reduced criminal incidents and calls for service among Jersey City citizens over six months
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
What is typical or valued here?
Crime
Braga & Bond, 2008: Cleaning up signs of physical and social disorder in crime hotspots reduced 911 calls among Lowell citizens over six months
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
What is typical or valued here?
Crime
Ai et al., 2016: Encouraging to join lending teams, especially when emphasizing local social norms, increased loans' solicitation and contributions among micro and small businesses over a week
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Direct labeling
What is typical or valued here?
Civic behavior
Yoshida et al., 2012: Withholding audience laughter while depicting racist jokes in videos improved implicit normative evaluations and reduced discrimination among adults
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Intergroup relationships
White & Simpson, 2013, Study 2: Ecnouraging to "grasscycle" emphasizing individuality or communities reduced amount of grass left for garbage collection among homeowners
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Direct labeling
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Sustainability
Van de Vyver & John, 2017: Encouraging to nominate a local building as a community asset with social norms had no effect on the likelihood of Parish councils who reviewed more information or who nominated a building over three weeks to four months
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Direct labeling
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Civic behavior
Schultz et al., 2007: Rewarding residents with a happy face for saving energy reduced their energy use even more over three weeks
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Direct labeling
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Sustainability
Schultz, 1999: Promoting recycling with individual or group feedback increased recycling among low-recycling homeowners in La Verne, California
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Direct labeling
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Sustainability
Rogers & Feller, 2017: Mailing parents letters emphasizing that “absences matter and you can help” reduced school year absences among Philadelphia school district students
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Education
Rogers et al., 2017: Encouraging voting with social pressure increased voter turnout among low-to-medium propensity voters in Wisconsin
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Civic behavior
Radke & Klisurich, 1947, Study 2: Discussing, promoting, and endorsing milk consumption increased such intake among low-income housewives over four weeks
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Health
Radke & Klisurich, 1947, Study 1: Discussing, suggesting, and edorsing the importance of supplements for their babies increased likelihood of following nutrtition advice among low-income mothers over four weeks
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Health
Paluck et al., 2016: Encouraging anti-conflict behaviors reduced disciplinary problems among 56 middle schools, especially when these behaviors were taught to influential students
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Education
Paluck & Shepherd, 2012: Promoting anti-bullying messages via influential students increased efforts to deescalate conflicts and defend other students among students closer to the influencers
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Education
Paluck, 2009: Describing positive norms of intergroup relationships via radio soap opera increased empathy and willingness to speak out among post-genocidal Rwandwans
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Intergroup relationships
Nolan et al., 2008, Experiment 2: Promoting energy compliance with social norms decreased energy consumption among California households over one month
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Direct labeling
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Sustainability
Lewin, 1958: Encouraging identities and decision making increased servings of organ meats among middle-class housewives
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Civic behavior
Hallsworth et al., 2014: Encouraging tax compliance with social norms increased tax revenue over 23 days
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Direct labeling
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Civic behavior
Hallsworth et al., 2016: Providing feedback about high prescription rates reduced prescriptions for antibiotics among general practioners over six months
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Direct labeling
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Health
Gerber et al., 2008: Encouraging voting with social pressure increased voter turnout among households in Michigan
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Civic behavior
Bond et al., 2012: Encouraging voting on social media by promoting a social identity increased voter turnout among 61 million Facebook users
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Civic behavior
Bilali et al. 2017: Listening to radio drama emphasizing collective action towards social issues followed by a group discussion increased collective efficacy and readiness to participate in collective action among Congolese participatns
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Civic behavior
Allcott, 2011: Comparing utility bills with neighbors reduced home energy use among 600,000 households, especially among high-energy users
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Direct labeling
What is typical or valued in my social community?
Sustainability
Yeager, Henderson, et al., 2014, Study 2: Promoting a prosocial learning purpose increased self-regulation and grades in math and science classes among low-performing students over one academic term
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Will this behavior help other people?
Education
Paunesku et al., 2015: Promoting a prosocial learning purpose increased academic performance among at-risk high schoolers over the next semester
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Will this behavior help other people?
Education
Grant & Hofmann, 2011: Encouraging washing hands to protect patients' health increased soap use among medical professionals over two weeks
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Direct labeling
Will this behavior help other people?
Health
Grant et al., 2007: Engaging in a 5-minute interaction with a scholarship beneficiary increased money raised among unversity fundraisers over the next month
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Will this behavior help other people?
Work
Grant, 2008, Experiment 3: Sharing life-changing stories from scholarship recipients increased the number of pledges, especially among low-conscientious and high-prosocial university fundraisers over the next week
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Will this behavior help other people?
Work
Grant, 2008, Experiment 2: Sharing lifeguards' life-saving stories increased work hours volunteered and positive ratings from supervisors among lifeguards over one month
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Will this behavior help other people?
Work
Grant, 2008, Experiment 1: Sharing life-changing stories from scholarship recipents increased the number of pledges and money raised among university fundraisers over the next week
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Will this behavior help other people?
Work
Bryan & Hershfield, 2012: Reflecting on self-interest or their responsability to future selves increased saving rates among university staff members
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Will this behavior help other people?
Retirement savings
Fotuhi et al., 2014: Affirming values shared with friends or family increased likelihood of quitting smoking among smokers over six months
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Active reflection
Will this behavior help me connect with other people?
Health
Wing & Jeffery, 1999: Providing social support increased likelihood of maintaining weight loss among adults over ten months after treatment
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Am I working together with others to accomplish personal or collective goals?
Health
Spiegel et al., 1989: Providing social support, as well as self-hypnosis for pain, increased mean survival time among female cancer patients
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Am I working together with others to accomplish personal or collective goals?
Health
Prestwich et al., 2012: Implementing if-then strategies with a partner increased engagement in physical activity and weight loss among adults over one to six months
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Am I working together with others to accomplish personal or collective goals?
Health
Coch & French, 1948: Actively participating in decisions in group meetings increased productivity among pajama factory employees
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Am I working together with others to accomplish personal or collective goals?
Work
Shook & Clay, 2012: Being paired with White roomates at a predominantly White university increased sense of belonging among first-year minority students over first semester
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Am I connected with important people in school or work settings?
Education
Grant & Gino, 2010: Being grateful to university fundraisers for their work increased their social worth and the number of calls from fundraisers over the next week
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Am I connected with important people in school or work settings?
Work
Gehlbach et al. 2016: Providing shared values between students and teachers improved academic performance among minorities over the term
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link to Belonging to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Am I connected with important people in school or work settings?
Education
Brady et al., in prep A: "Psychologically attuned" academic probation letters decreased feelings of shame and stigma and improved academic behaviors among college students over a year
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Direct labeling
Does this event or experience mean I don't belong?
Education
Yeager, Walton et al. 2016, Experiment 3-Cultural Fit: Reflecting on stories about cultural fit in college in an online, prematriculation exercise improved GPA and promoted social and academic integration among minority and first-generation college students over the first year of college.
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Can people "like me" come to belong?
Education
Yeager, Walton, et al., 2016, Experiment 3-Social Belonging: Reflecting on stories about common challenges to belonging in the transition to college in an online, prematriculation exercise improved GPA and promoted social and academic integration among minority and first-generation college students over the first year of college
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Can people "like me" come to belong?
Education
Yeager, Walton, et al., 2016, Experiment 2-Social Belonging: Reflecting on stories about common challenges to belonging in the transition to college in an online, prematriculation exercise increased enrollment and persistence among minority and first-generation college students over a year
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Can people "like me" come to belong?
Education
Yeager, Walton, et al., 2016, Experiment 1-Social Belonging: Reflecting on stories about common challenges to belonging in the transition to college in an online, prematriculation exercise increased enrollment, persistence, and social and academic integration among minority and first-generation high school students
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Can people "like me" come to belong?
Education
Walton, Logel, et al., 2015-Social Belonging: Reflecting on stories about common challenges to belonging in the transition to engineering raised first-year GPA and improved academic attitudes and daily functioning among women in male-dominated engineering majors over an academic year
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Can people "like me" come to belong?
Education
Walton & Cohen, 2011: Reflecting on stories about common challenges to belonging in the transition to college increased GPA, happiness, and health among African American college students over three years.
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Can people "like me" come to belong?
Education
Stephens et al., 2014: Reflecting on social class challenges and how to overcome them improved academic performance and physiological thriving among first-generation college students over one to two years
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Can people "like me" come to belong?
Education
Rozek et al., in prep: Reflecting on stories about common challenges to belonging in the transition to middle school increased academic performance and positive attitudes, and decreased negative behavior among middle schoolers over a year
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Can people "like me" come to belong?
Education
Murphy et al., under review: Reflecting on stories about common challenges to belonging increased likelihood of enrollment and academic performance among socially disadvantaged students over six months to two years
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Can people "like me" come to belong?
Education
Kizilcec et al., 2017, Experiment 2-Social Belonging: Reflecting on stories about common challenges to belonging in the transition to a course increased course persistence among students from less-developed countries and increased completion rates among students from more developed countries
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Can people "like me" come to belong?
Education
Kizilcec et al., 2017, Experiment 1-Social-Belonging: Reflecting on stories about common challenges to belonging in the transition to a course doubled course persistence among students from less developed countries
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Can people "like me" come to belong?
Education
Goyer, Cohen, et al., under review: Reflecting on stories about common challenges to belonging in the transition to middle school reduced disciplinary citations, belonging uncertainty, and stereotype threat among African American middle schoolers over a year
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Can people "like me" come to belong?
Education
Dennehy & Dasgupta, 2017: Being paired with female mentors sustained levels of belonging and self-efficacy, and increased rates of retention and aspirations in engineering majors among female engineering undergraduates over two years
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Can people "like me" come to belong?
Education
Broda et al., 2018: Learning about the malleability of intelligence increased academic performance among low-performing Latinx college students
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Can people "like me" come to belong?
Education
Yeager, Trzesniewski, & Dweck, 2013: Emphasizing how people can change reduced aggressions and increased prosocial behavior among high schoolers over one month
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Can negative relational qualities of people change?
Education
Yeager, Johnson, et al., 2014, Study 3: Emphasizing how people can change reduced stress and illness and incerased academic achievement, especially among fixed-mindset high schoolers
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Can negative relational qualities of people change?
Education
Yeager, Johnson, et al., 2014, Study 2: Emphasizing how people can change reduced negative reactions to social adversity and desire for vengeance, improved health, and boosted grades among 9th grade students over eight months
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Can negative relational qualities of people change?
Education
Miu & Yeager, 2015: Emphasizing how people can change reduced depressive symptoms among high schoolers over nine months
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Increasing commitment through action
Can negative relational qualities of people change?
Education
Schreier et al., 2013: Volunteering at public elementary schools increased physiological health, especially among high-empathetic and low-negative-mood high school students
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Am I connected to others?
Health
Otake et al., 2006: Reflecting on kind behavior increased happiness among undergraduates over a week
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Active reflection
Am I connected to others?
Well-Being
Nelson-Coffey et al., 2017: Performing acts of kindness to specific others reduced genomic activty related to inflammation among adults over five weeks
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Am I connected to others?
Health
Lyubomirsky,et al., 2011: Expressing gratitude or optimism improved well-being among self-motivated college students over six months
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Active reflection
Am I connected to others?
Well-Being
Lyubomirsky et al., 2005, Study 1, described in Lyubomirsky et al., 2005: Performing five acts of kindness per day over six weeks increased happiness among college students over this period
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Am I connected to others?
Well-Being
Haworth et al., 2016: Performing acts of kindness and writing gratitude letters improved well-being and decreased depression and anxiety among twin pairs over ten weeks
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Am I connected to others?
Well-Being
Fredrickson et al., 2008: Practicing love-kindness meditation increased well-being, feelings of social support, and positive emotions among adults over fifteen months
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Active reflection
Am I connected to others?
Health
Dunn et al., 2008: Spending given money on other people increased happiness among college students over one day
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Am I connected to others?
Well-Being
Brummelman et al., 2014: Writing about receiving unconditional regard from peers before getting final grades reduced feelings of shame among poor-performing students
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Active reflection
Am I connected to others?
Well-Being
Boehm et al., 2011: Conveying gratitude or expressing optimism increased life satisfaction among Anglo American adults over one month
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Active reflection
Am I connected to others?
Well-Being
Motto & Bostrom, 2001: Receiving periodic caring notes from a hospital reduced subsequent suicide rates among at-risk patients over two years
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Am I noticed by others?
Health
Hausmann et al., 2009: Receiving gifts increased the sense of belonging among White first-year college students
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Direct labeling
Am I noticed by others?
Education
Hassanian-Moghaddam et al., 2011: Receiving periodic caring notes from a hospital reduced suicide ideation and attempts among at-risk patients over a year
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Am I noticed by others?
Health
Carter et al., 2013: Receiving periodic caring notes from a hospital reduced hospital readmissions among at-risk patients over five years
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Belonging that Undermine Functioning 
Need to Belong
Prompting new meanings
Am I noticed by others?
Health
Brannon & Walton, 2013, Study 3: Freely choosing to connect and interact with a Mexican American student increased interest and positive attitudes toward Latinos among White and Asian undergaduates over six months
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link Self-Integrity to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need for Self-integrity
Increasing commitment through action
Does my behavior contradict an old attitude or belief?
Intergroup relationships
Brannon & Walton, 2013, Study 2: Connecting and facilitating positive interactions with a Mexican American student increased interest and positive attitudes toward Latinos among White and Asian undergaduates over six months
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link Self-Integrity to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need for Self-integrity
Increasing commitment through action
Does my behavior contradict an old attitude or belief?
Intergroup relationships
Aronson & Osherow, 1980: Promoting cooperation by learning and teaching materials to peers increased likeness, self-esteem, and academic performance and reduced racial biases among 5th-grade students
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link Self-Integrity to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need for Self-integrity
Increasing commitment through action
Does my behavior contradict an old attitude or belief?
Education
Stone et al., 1994: Prompting hypocrisy by helping in an AIDS prevention program and thinking of instances of failed condom use increased likelihood of condoms purchase among sexually active undergraduates
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link Self-Integrity to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need for Self-integrity
Increasing commitment through action
Am I not living up to my attitudes or values?
Health
Son Hing et al., 2002: Prompting hypocrisy about prejudice towards Asians increased guilt and discomfort and decreased prejudice among high-implicit prejudice undergraduates
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link Self-Integrity to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need for Self-integrity
Increasing commitment through action
Am I not living up to my attitudes or values?
Intergroup relationships
Rokeach, 1976: Confronting values of sense of accomplishment and mature love increased supervisors' rating of effective teaching among teachers over 12 to 13 weeks later
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link Self-Integrity to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need for Self-integrity
Increasing commitment through action
Am I not living up to my attitudes or values?
Work
Rokeach, 1971: Confronting values of fredom and equality increased willingness to promote equal rights and interest in ethnic studies among undergraduates over a year and a half
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link Self-Integrity to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need for Self-integrity
Increasing commitment through action
Am I not living up to my attitudes or values?
Intergroup relationships
Dickerson et al., 1992: Prompting hypocritical feelings about length of showers reduced shower time among female swimmers
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link Self-Integrity to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need for Self-integrity
Increasing commitment through action
Am I not living up to my attitudes or values?
Sustainability
Axsom & Cooper, 1985: Performing effortful tasks claimed to help losing weight increased weight loss among overweight undergraduates over one year
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link Self-Integrity to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need for Self-integrity
Increasing commitment through action
Did I work hard at this?
Health
Smith et al., 2003: Asking if they were expecting to vote in election had no effect on voter turnout among registered voters
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link Self-Integrity to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need for Self-integrity
Increasing commitment through action
Did I say I would do it?
Civic behavior
Shu et al., 2012: Commiting to provide true information increased car mileage disclosed, payments, and fairness among policy owners
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link Self-Integrity to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need for Self-integrity
Increasing commitment through action
Did I say I would do it?
Civic behavior
Matthies et al 2006: Commiting to use public transportation increased willingness to try it among German citizens over five months
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link Self-Integrity to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need for Self-integrity
Sustainability
Prompting new meanings
Did I say I would do it?
Gringart et al., 2008: Reflecting on and counterarguing stereotypes and discrimination towards older workers increased positive views, preference, and likelihood for hiring older workers among Australian hiring managers
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link Self-Integrity to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need for Self-integrity
Intergroup relationships
Increasing commitment through action
Did I say I would do it?
Greenwald et al. 1987; see also Nickerson & Rogers, 2010; Smith et al., 2003: Asking location, time, and expectations of voting, increased likelihood of voting for the presidential elections among college undergraduates
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link Self-Integrity to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need for Self-integrity
Civic behavior
Increasing commitment through action
Did I say I would do it?
Dholakia & Morwitz (2002): Assessing satisfaction with the company increased likelihood of openning new customer accounts and reduced unprofitability of costumers among a financial services firm over a year
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Link Self-Integrity to a Behavior (or Attitude) to Motivate Positive Change 
Need for Self-integrity
Work
Increasing commitment through action
Did I say I would do it?
Thomaes et al., 2009: Affirming values decreased likelihood of being nominated by peers as agressive among low self-esteem, narcissistic adolescents one week later
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Interpersonal relationships and behavior
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because I have trouble getting along with important people?
Thomaes et al., 2012: Affirming values increased prosocial feelings and behavior among antisocial adolescents over three months
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Interpersonal relationships and behavior
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because I have trouble getting along with important people?
Stinson et al., 2011: Affirming values increased security and confidence in personal relationships among insecure college students over two months
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Interpersonal relationships and behavior
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because I have trouble getting along with important people?
Layous et al., 2016: Affirming values before completing a challenging math exam improved academic performance among students who felt they did not belong at college over one semester
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Education
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because I have trouble getting along with important people?
Jessop et al., 2014, Study 2: Affirming values and implementing if-then strategies decreased exercise among sedentary adults
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Health
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because I am doing something that harms my health?
Jessop et al., 2014, Study 1: Affirming values increased exercise but also implementing if-then strategies eliminated this effect among adults one week later
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Health
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because I am doing something that harms my health?
Harris et al., 2014: Affirming values or implementing if-then strategies increased fruit and vegetable consumption among adults one week to three months later
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Health
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because I am doing something that harms my health?
Harris et al., 2007: Affirming desired characteristics increased motivation to smoke less but did not change actual smoking behavior among adults one week later
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Health
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because I am doing something that harms my health?
Falk et al., 2015: Affirming values increased brain activity related to positive valuation and decreased sedentary behavior among sedentary adults over a month
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Health
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because I am doing something that harms my health?
Ehret & Sherman, 2018: Affirming values and implementing if-then strategies to reduce drinking increased abstinence rates among undergraduates over two weeks
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Health
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because I am doing something that harms my health?
Armitage et al., 2011: Affirming values and implementing if-then strategies increased acceptance of health risk information of drinking and decreased alcohol consumption among adults over one month
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Health
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because I am doing something that harms my health?
Logel & Cohen, 2012: Affirming values increased weight loss and self-regulation among overweight women over two-and-a-half months
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Health
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because I have trouble regulating my behavior effectively to accomplish important goals?
Sherman, Bunyan, et al., 2009: Affirming values weeks before a test reduced levels of stress as the test approached among undergraduate students
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Health
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because I face a stressful or threatening academic experience?
Peters et al., 2017: Affirming values improved performance on arithmetic tests and health-related behavior among introductory psychology students over one term
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Education
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because I face a stressful or threatening academic experience?
Walton, Logel et al., 2015-Values Affirmation: Reflecting on ways to incorporate values in daily life in engineering to manage stress and function well raised first-year GPA and improved academic attitudes and daily functioning among women in male-dominated engineering majors over an academic year
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Education
Increasing commitment through action
Am I under threat, because could I be seen or treated negatively because of my group identity?
Silverman & Cohen, 2014: Affirming values increased progress in four compensatory skill-training courses among blind students over a month
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Education
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because could I be seen or treated negatively because of my group identity?
Sherman et al., 2013, Study 2: Affirming values increased academic performance, fit, and motivation among Latino students over a year
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Education
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because could I be seen or treated negatively because of my group identity?
Sherman et al., 2013, Study 1: Affirming values increased grades among middle-school Latino students over three years
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Education
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because could I be seen or treated negatively because of my group identity?
Miyake et al., 2010: Affirming values raised physics academic performance among female college students
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Education
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because could I be seen or treated negatively because of my group identity?
Kost-Smith et al., 2012: Affirming values improved physics academic performance among female college students
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Education
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because could I be seen or treated negatively because of my group identity?
Harackiewcz et al., 2016: Affirming values had no benefits among first-generation students probably because there were no social class gap
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Education
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because could I be seen or treated negatively because of my group identity?
Harackiewcz et al., 2014: Affirming values increased academic achievement among first-generation students over three years
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Education
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because could I be seen or treated negatively because of my group identity?
Hall et al., 2014: Affirming personal successes improved executive scores and increased acceptance of information about public benefit programs among clients at a soup kitchen
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Poverty
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because could I be seen or treated negatively because of my group identity?
Dee, 2015: Affirming values improved academic performance among middle school minority students with supportive classrooms, but reduced performance among girls
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Education
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because could I be seen or treated negatively because of my group identity?
Cook et al., 2012, Study 2: Affirming values in first week of classes raised first-quarter grades and sense of belonging among low-performing African American 7th-grade students
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Education
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because could I be seen or treated negatively because of my group identity?
Cohen et al., 2006: Affirming values increased academic performance, belonging at school, and likelihood to enroll in college especially among low-performing African American 7th-grade students over 2 years
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Education
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because could I be seen or treated negatively because of my group identity?
Brady et al., 2016: Affirming values increases academic performance and positive self-views, while reducing threat among Latino college students over two years
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Education
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because could I be seen or treated negatively because of my group identity?
Borman et al., 2015: Affirming values reduced the achievement gap for racial-ethnic minority middle school students
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Education
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because could I be seen or treated negatively because of my group identity?
Bowen et al., 2013: Affirming values increases academic performance among low-income middle school students
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Education
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because could I be seen or treated negatively because of my group identity?
Ben-Zeev et al., 2017: Affirming values reduces stereotype-based concerns, and increases academic performance among undergraduate minorities in STEM
Approach to a Desired Meaning:
Remedy Threats to Self-Integrity that Undermine Functioning 
Need for Self-integrity
Education
Active reflection
Am I under threat, because could I be seen or treated negatively because of my group identity?
Stanforth et al., 2011: Learning about how their work is a good exercise decreased blood pressure among university building service workers over 8 weeks
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
Will this treatment or behavior help me?
Kaptchuk et al., 2010: Taking a placebo pill and understanding the benefits of this effect reduced symptoms and increased relief among patients over three weeks
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
Will this treatment or behavior help me?
Crum & Langer, 2007: Explaining that their job is physically healthy increased health and job satisfaction among hotel room attendants over four weeks
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
Will this treatment or behavior help me?
Benedetti et al., 2003: Making the injection of drugs visible increased the drug's effectiveness and decreased pain and anxiety among patients
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
Will this treatment or behavior help me?
Gripshover & Markman, 2013: Teaching the importance of different nutrients in different foods increased vegetable intake among preschool-aged children
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
How does my body interact with the external world?
Au et al., 2008: Teaching about the biological theory of germs increased hand washing among 4th-grade children
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
How does my body interact with the external world?
Destin & Oyserman, 2009: Representing college as accessible increased homework planning among low-income 7th-grade students over the night
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Is college accessible to me?
Destin, 2016: Representing college as accessible increased homework planning for that night among 7th-grade students from low-asset households
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Is college accessible to me?
Okonofua et al., 2016: Having middle-school teachers take an empathic mindset towards student misbehavior reduced suspension rates over the school year
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Education
Increasing commitment through action
How can I better manage this conflict?
Goldenberg et al., 2018: Reflection on how groups can change or taking opposing perspectives in challenging situations improved attitudes towards Palestinians among Israeli Jews over six months
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
How can I better manage this conflict?
Hudley & Graham, 1993: Learning to understand ambiguous social interactions as not hostile reduced hostility and aggression among African American elementary students over two weeks
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
How can I better manage this conflict?
Finkel et al., 2013: Taking a third party perspective when dealing with marital conflicts improved marital satisfaction among couples over a year
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Interpersonal relationships and behavior
Active reflection
How can I better manage this conflict?
LaBrie et al., 2016: Informing parents about drinking behavior and strategies to talk with their child reduced alcohol consumption among students in first month of college
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Health
Direct labeling
How can I appropriately influence my teenager?
Harackiewicz et al., 2012: Explaining why math and science are useful to parents increased enrollement in such courses among students in last 2 years of high school
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Education
Direct labeling
How can I appropriately influence my teenager?
Destin & Svoboda, 2017: Communicating to parents the importance of discussing future opportunites and positively responding to difficulties increased academic performance among 8th graders
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
How can I appropriately influence my teenager?
Bugental & Schwartz, 2009: Attributing parental challenges to external causes improved health, well-being, and cognitive function of infants among at-risk parents
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
Why Is my baby fussing?
Bugental et al., 2002: Attributing parental challenges to external causes decreased child abuse and mother's depression, and increased children health, especially among at-risk first-year mothers
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
Why Is my baby fussing?
Turnwald et al., 2017: Labeling vegetable dishes in indulgent terms increased the consumption of vegetable dishes among college students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Health
Direct labeling
Is this food desirable to eat?
Hanks et al., 2016: Advertising vegetable consumption via banners and TV were more likely to eat more vegetables among elementary students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Health
Direct labeling
Is this food desirable to eat?
Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Soenens, et al., 2004: Teaching recycling in an intrinsically way increased learning, interest, and test performance among Belgian college students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Does this school or work task have personal meaning to me?
Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Sheldon, et al., 2004, Experiment 3: Teaching Tai-bo in an intrinsically or autonomous way increased learning and performance among Belgian high schoolers
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Does this school or work task have personal meaning to me?
Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Sheldon, et al., 2004, Experiment 2: Teaching marketing in an intrinsically or autonomous way increased interest, learning, and test performance among Belgian marketing students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Does this school or work task have personal meaning to me?
Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Sheldon, et al., 2004, Experiment 1: Teaching recycling in an intrinsically or autonomous way increased interest, learning, and test performance about recycling among Belgian college students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Does this school or work task have personal meaning to me?
Jang, 2008: Teaching statistics as relevant to their identities increased engagement on course material among students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Does this school or work task have personal meaning to me?
Hulleman et al., 2017, Experiment 2: Asking why psychology is useful in their lives increased interest and final exam scores among poor-performing undergraduate psychology students, especially men
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Does this school or work task have personal meaning to me?
Hulleman & Harackiewcz, 2009: Asking why science is useful in their or others lives increased interest and grades among 9th grade science students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Does this school or work task have personal meaning to me?
Harackiewicz et al., 2016: Asking why biology is useful in their lives raised grades among first-generation, ethnic-minority, biology students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Education
Active reflection
Does this school or work task have personal meaning to me?
Harackiewicz et al., 2012: Explaining why math and science are useful to parents increased enrollment in those courses and scores in an standardized test among high schoolers
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Education
Direct labeling
Does this school or work task have personal meaning to me?
Canning et al., 2017: Explaining why course content is relevant to their or others' lives improved course grades, more likely to enroll to next biology course and to continue their STEM major among biology students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Personal and Social Experiences 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Does this school or work task have personal meaning to me?
Smeding et al., 2013: Representing statistics exam as a learning tool eliminated a large social-class performance gap among French undergraduates
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Education
Direct labeling
Am I viewed through the lens of a negative stereotype?
Good et al., 2008: Lowering identity threat on test improved scores, especially among White women
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Education
Direct labeling
Am I viewed through the lens of a negative stereotype?
Danaher & Crandall, 2008: Lowering identity threat by asking demographic questions at the end of a test increased scores and likelihood of receiving credit among high school girls
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Am I viewed through the lens of a negative stereotype?
Yeager, Walton, et al., 2016, Experiment 3-Critical Feedback: Representing critical feedback as reflecting professors’ belief in their students’ ability to reach a higher standard in an online, prematriculation exercise improved GPA and promoted social and academic integration among minority and first-generation college students over the first year of college
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Education
Increasing commitment through action
Why did I receive critical feedback?
Yeager, Purdie-Vaughns et al., 2014, Experiment 3: Framing critical feedback as a source of growth improved academic performance among African American high schoolers
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Education
Increasing commitment through action
Why did I receive critical feedback?
Yeager, Purdie-Vaughns et al., 2014, Experiments 1 and 2: Framing critical feedback as a source of growth increased number of essays revised, decreased disciplinary citations, and were more likely to enroll in college among Black 7th grade students over years
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Why did I receive critical feedback?
Marigold et al., 2010, Experiment 2: Recalling and reflecting on a complement from romantic partner decreased negative behavior among low-self esteem adults over two to three weeks
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Interpersonal relationships and behavior
Prompting new meanings
Am I loved and valued?
Marigold et al., 2010, Experiment 1: Recalling and reflecting on a complement from romantic partner increased self-esteem among low-self esteem partners
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Interpersonal relationships and behavior
Prompting new meanings
Am I loved and valued?
Marigold et al., 2007, Experiment 3: Recalling and reflecting on a complement from romantic partner increased sense of security, value in their relationship and positive partner behavior among low self-esteem partners
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Interpersonal relationships and behavior
Prompting new meanings
Am I loved and valued?
Marigold et al., 2007, Experiment 2: Recalling and reflecting on a complement from romantic partner increased sense of security and value in the relationship among low self-esteem partners over the next 2-3 weeks
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Interpersonal relationships and behavior
Prompting new meanings
Am I loved and valued?
Marigold et al., 2007, Experiment 1: Recalling and reflecting on a complement from romantic partner increased happiness and self esteem among low slef-esteem partners
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Interpersonal relationships and behavior
Prompting new meanings
Am I loved and valued?
Layous et al., 2012: Performing acts of kindness increased social acceptance among children over 4 weeks
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Interpersonal relationships and behavior
Prompting new meanings
Am I loved and valued?
Forscher et al., 2017: Learning about implicit bias increased concern about prejudice over two weeks and were more likely to object to racial stereotypes two years later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
Do I associate other groups with negative qualities?
Devine et al., 2012: Learning about implicit bias decreased implicit prejudice and increased concern about discrimination among non African American undergraduates for 2 months
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
Do I associate other groups with negative qualities?
Carnes et al., 2015: Promoting gender equity and increasing gender bias awareness increased awareness, motivation, and action to remedy bias among faculty and marginally increased hiring of women over 2 years
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
Do I associate other groups with negative qualities?
Stathi et al., 2014: Imagining interacting with Asian children increased positive perceptions of Asian children among White English 7-9 year olds
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Active reflection
What connections do I have/could I have with other groups?
Shook & Fazio, 2008: Pairing African American with White roommates decreased roommate relationship satisfaction but reduced racial prejudices among college freshmen
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
What connections do I have/could I have with other groups?
Page-Gould, et al., 2008: Participating in interracial interactions while sharing personal information decreased cortisol levels and initiated cross-group interactions among White and Latino undergraduates ten days later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
What connections do I have/could I have with other groups?
Mallett & Wilson, 2010: Reflecting about a time when students didn't thought they would be friends with another person but were wrong improved interracial relations among undergraduates over two weeks
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Increasing commitment through action
What connections do I have/could I have with other groups?
Liebkind & McAlister, 1999: Learning and discussing about friendships between Finish and immigrant students prevented a decline in tolerance of immigrant students among Finnish middle school students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
What connections do I have/could I have with other groups?
Kende et al., 2018: Talking about personal matters with Roma students increased positive attitudes towards them among Hungarian students over 2 or 6 weeks over
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
What connections do I have/could I have with other groups?
Guerra et al., 2013: Recategorizing identities between European and African Portuguese children decreased bias against European Portugese among African Portugese children
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
What connections do I have/could I have with other groups?
Cameron et al., 2006: Reflecting about friendships between refugees and ingroup members improved sense of connection and positive attitudes towards refugees among White English children
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
What connections do I have/could I have with other groups?
Broockman & Kalla, 2016: Discussing transgender rights and reflecting about being discriminated reduced transphobia over 3 months and increased support for nondiscrimination law
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
What connections do I have/could I have with other groups?
Aronson et al., 2016: Learning about immigrant lives and cultures increased interest among young children in interacting with immigrant children over 3 weeks and reduced anxiety among American children over 10 weeks
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
What connections do I have/could I have with other groups?
Er-rafiy & Brauer, 2013, Experiment 4: Emphasizing diversity on posters in classrooms decreased prejudice and negative sterotypes towards Arabs among French undergraduates
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
Can groups change?
Er-rafiy & Brauer, 2013, Experiment 3: Emphasizing diversity on posters around the school decreased social distance and bias towards Arabs among French high schoolers
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
Can groups change?
Halperin et al., 2011: Learning that aggressive groups can change increased willingness to compromise among Israeli Jews and Palestinians
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
Can groups change?
Goldenberg et al., 2018: Learning that groups can change and taking different perspectives when understanding conflict improved attitudes and conciliatory behavior towards Palestinians among Israeli Jews over 6 months
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
Can groups change?
Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968: Improving teacher's expectations of some students increased intellectual growth among children over the school year
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Education
Direct labeling
Which students are most likely to grow?
Raudenbush, 1984: Improving teacher's expectations of students are most effective if established within the first two weeks of a school year among elementary-school and 7th-grade students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Other People and Groups 
Need to Understand
Education
Direct labeling
Which students are most likely to grow?
Smith et al., 2018: Learning about strategies and difficulties of emotion regulation increased emotional well-being and belonging in school among middle schoolers over six weeks
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Well-Being
Increasing commitment through action
Can emotions change?
Burnette & Finkel, 2012: Learning about losing weight with effort increased weight loss when experiencing more dieting difficulties among adults over 12 weeks
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
Can weight change?
Yeager, Walton, et al., 2016, Experiment 2-Growth Mindset: Representing intelligence as malleable in an online, prematriculation exercise increased full-time enrollment among minorities and first-generation college students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Increasing commitment through action
Is intelligence fixed or can it grow
Yeager, Walton, et al., 2016, Experiment 1-Growth Mindset: Representing intelligence as malleable in an online, prematriculation exercise did not affect first-year college completion among minority and first-generation high school students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Increasing commitment through action
Is intelligence fixed or can it grow
Yeager, Romero et al., 2016: Learning about the malleability of intelligence increased academic performance among at-risk 9th grade students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Increasing commitment through action
Is intelligence fixed or can it grow
Paunesku et al., 2015: Learning about the malleability of intelligence and learning with a sense of purpose increased GPA among at-risk high school students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Increasing commitment through action
Is intelligence fixed or can it grow
Outes et al., 2017: Learning about the malleability of intelligence improved math scores and attitudes towards learning among secondary students and teachers in Peru
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Is intelligence fixed or can it grow
Lin-Siegler et al., 2016: Reading about difficulties and overcoming them improved science grades among 9th and 10th grade low-income students over the next six weeks
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Is intelligence fixed or can it grow
Good et al., 2003: Learning about the malleability of intelligence and attributing failure to novel social situations improved math standardized scores among girls and reading scores among low-income seventh graders
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Is intelligence fixed or can it grow
Chao et al., 2017: Learning about the malleability of intelligence and choosing a reward for attending classes increased performance on standardized tests among high-performing Indian students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Is intelligence fixed or can it grow
Broda et al., 2018: Learning about the malleability of intelligence increased first-year GPAs among freshmen Latino students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Increasing commitment through action
Is intelligence fixed or can it grow
Blackwell et al., 2007: Learning about the malleability of intelligence improved math grades among seventh graders over the next semester and improved classroom motivation
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Is intelligence fixed or can it grow
Bettinger et al., 2018: Learning about the malleability of intelligence improved math performance among Norwegian high schoolers, especially those who thought they were dumb or smart
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Increasing commitment through action
Is intelligence fixed or can it grow
Aronson et al., 2002: Learning, and then writing letters about developing your intelligence to middle schoolers, increased grades among college students over the following academic term
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Increasing commitment through action
Is intelligence fixed or can it grow
Andersen & Nielsen, 2016: Educating parents about developing reading abilities increased reading and writing test performance among second-grade students over seven months, especially when parents thought their children were good or bad at reading
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Direct labeling
Is intelligence fixed or can it grow
Schulz, 1976: Controlling or predicting college student visits increased health and well-being among retirement-home residents over 2 months but decreased these outcomes after 42 months
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
Can I control important aspects of my life?
Langer & Rodin, 1976: Taking responsability of themselves and making their own choices improved health and well-being among nursing-home residents
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Direct labeling
Can I control important aspects of my life?
Wilson & Linville, 1985: Learning and reflecting about academic difficulties as normal and temporary improved academic performance among undergraduates
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Increasing commitment through action
Does struggling mean I can’t do it?
Wilson & Linville, 1982: Reviewing information about improving GPA over time raised GPA among first-year undergraduates and reduced dropout rates over the next year
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Does struggling mean I can’t do it?
Weinberg et al., 2015: Attributing loss of function to personally controllable causes increased motivation, life satisfaction and function among older adults
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
Does struggling mean I can’t do it?
Struthers & Perry, 1996: Attributing academic failure as unstable and controllable improved grades among undergraduates with an unstable-uncontrollable attributional style
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Direct labeling
Does struggling mean I can’t do it?
Ruthig et al., 2004: Attributing academic failure as unstable and controllable, or attributing academic performance to effort, increased first year GPA among optimistic, first-year undergraduate students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Direct labeling
Does struggling mean I can’t do it?
Perry et al., 2010: Attributing academic failure as unstable and controllable increased course grades among poor- and average-performing undergraduate students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Direct labeling
Does struggling mean I can’t do it?
Perry & Penner, 1990: Attributing academic performance to effort improved academic achievement among undergraduate students one week later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Direct labeling
Does struggling mean I can’t do it?
Parker et al., 2016: Attributing academic failure as unstable and controllable improved academic performance among undergraduate student-athletes
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Direct labeling
Does struggling mean I can’t do it?
Haynes et al., 2006: Attributing academic failure as unstable and controllable improved grades among highly optimistic undergraduate
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Direct labeling
Does struggling mean I can’t do it?
Hall et al., 2007: Attributing academic failure as unstable and controllable increased final course grades among undergraduates, especially among high-elaborative learning students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Direct labeling
Does struggling mean I can’t do it?
Hall et al., 2006: Attributing academic failure as unstable and controllable improved psychology grades among poorly performing students, especially among students who failed to psychologically adapt to adversity
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Direct labeling
Does struggling mean I can’t do it?
Hall et al., 2004: Attributing academic failure as unstable and controllable improved academic achievement among undergraduate students, especially among high-elaborative learning students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Direct labeling
Does struggling mean I can’t do it?
Good et al., 2003: Attributing academic difficulties due to new environment increased math scores among girls, and reading scores among low-income moniroty high schoolers
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Does struggling mean I can’t do it?
Boese et al., 2013: Learning that poor academic performance may occur because of internal, unstable, and controllable causes, improved academic achievement among undergraduates
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Direct labeling
Does struggling mean I can’t do it?
Bandura & Schunk, 1981: Motivating with manageable goals increased learning and self-efficacy in math among uninterested or struggling 7-10 year olds
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Direct labeling
Am I capable of learning or performing well?
Garcia-Retamero & Cokely, 2011: Graphically depicting messages, more than framing them as gains or losses, increased sexual-preventative and illness-detecting behaviors among undergraduates
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
Am I trying to promote something good or to prevent something bad?
Detweiler et al., 1999: Promoting the benefits of using sunscreen increased the likelihood of using it
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
Am I trying to promote something good or to prevent something bad?
Williams et al., 2006: Supporting in an autonomous way increased the likelihood to quit smoking among low-income and undereducated adults
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
Is this goal my own or imposed?
Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Sheldon, et al., 2004, Experiment 3: Teaching Tai-bo in an autonomous or intrinsic way increased performance and volunteering among Belgian high school students 3-5 days later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Is this goal my own or imposed?
Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Sheldon, et al., 2004, Experiment 2: Teaching business communication in an autonomous or intrinsic way increased course understanding and motivation 2 weeks later among Belgian college students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Is this goal my own or imposed?
Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Sheldon, et al., 2004, Experiment 1: Teaching recycling in an autonomous or intrinsic way increased understanding and motivation to recycle among Belgian college students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Is this goal my own or imposed?
Halvari & Halvari, 2006: Engaging in a 1-hour instructive dental health conversation reduced plaque and gingivitis over seven months
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
Is this goal my own or imposed?
Bryan, Yeager et al. 2016: Reading, reflecting, and writing about deceptive and manipulative marketing by food companies led students to choose fewer unhealthy foods one day later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Increasing commitment through action
Is this goal my own or imposed?
Zohar & Polachek, 2014: Providing feedback to supervisors about workers' safety, prductivity, and teamwork, improved work environment 6-8 weeks later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Work
Prompting new meanings
What were my goals?
Zohar, 2002: Providing feedback to supervisors about subordinates' safety-related behavior improved workplace safety over five months
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Work
Prompting new meanings
What were my goals?
Stöckli et al., 2016, Experiment 2: Placing skinniness- or activity-evoking images on vending machines increased healthier snack purchases
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
What were my goals?
Stöckli et al., 2016, Experiment 1: Placing health- or activity-evoking images on vending machines increased healthier snack purchases
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
What were my goals?
Rogers & Feller, 2017: Mailing parents letters emphasizing that “absences matter and you can help” reduced school year absences among Philadelphia school district students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
What were my goals?
Papies & Veling, 2013: Priming recipes as healthy in a restaurant menu increased selection of low-calorie foods among chronic and current dieters
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
What were my goals?
Papies et al., 2014: Priming recipes as healthy decreased the amount of unhealthy snacks bought by overweight grocery shoppers
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
What were my goals?
Papies & Hamstra, 2010: Priming recipes as healthy reduced unhealthy snacks consumed among dieters
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
What were my goals?
Kato et al., 2008: Playing a video game that promotes positive self-care led to greater adherence to antibiotics and oral chemotherapy over three months
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Active reflection
What were my goals?
Graham et al., 2011: Reporting mileage and giving feedback about the benefits of driving less decreased driving over four weeks
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Sustainability
Prompting new meanings
What were my goals?
Dal Cin et al., 2006: Wearing a bracelet to remember the dangers of unprotected sex increased condom use among undergraduates over 5-7 weeks, especially after drinking
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
What were my goals?
Asensio & Delmas, 2015: Linking energy usage to health and environmental issues reduced usage over 100 days
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Sustainability
Prompting new meanings
What were my goals?
Stadler et al., 2010: Reflecting, planning, and setting goals increased fruit and vegetable consumption over two years
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Active reflection
How will I accomplish my goals?
Stadler et al., 2009: Reflecting, planning, and setting goals doubled physical activity among women over four months
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Active reflection
How will I accomplish my goals?
Sherman et al., 2010: Touching a floss or walking in place while watching flossing or jogging videos increased these activities engagement over the next week
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
How will I accomplish my goals?
Pham & Taylor, 1999: Reflecting about study habits instead of getting a grade increased exam scores among undergraduates one week later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Active reflection
How will I accomplish my goals?
Morisano et al., 2010: Reflecting, planning, and setting goals raised academic performance among struggling college students over 4 months
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Active reflection
How will I accomplish my goals?
Kizilcec & Cohen, 2017 Experiment 2: Reflecting, planning, and setting goals increased the likelihood to complete an online computer science course for individualistic but not for collectivist students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Active reflection
How will I accomplish my goals?
Kizilcec, R. F., & Cohen, G. L. (2017). Eight-minute self-regulation intervention raises educational attainment at scale in individualist but not collectivist cultures. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(17), 4348-4353.
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Active reflection
How will I accomplish my goals?
Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2016, Study 5: Reflecting, writing, and relating to own life the benefits of deliberate practice improved academic performance among 7th grade students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Increasing commitment through action
How will I accomplish my goals?
Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2016, Study 4: Reflecting, writing, and relating to own life the benefits of deliberate practice improved academic performance among 6th grade students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Increasing commitment through action
How will I accomplish my goals?
Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2016, Study 3: Reflecting, writing, and relating to own life the benefits of deliberate practice improved academic performance among undergraduates over the semester
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Increasing commitment through action
How will I accomplish my goals?
Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2016, Study 2: Reflecting, writing, and relating to own life the benefits of deliberate practice improved math performance among 5th and 6th grade students with lower prior math achievement
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Increasing commitment through action
How will I accomplish my goals?
Duckworth et al., 2013: Reflecting about obstacles and solutions, about personal goals, improved academic achievement among urban 5th graders over a quarter
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Active reflection
How will I accomplish my goals?
Duckworth et al., 2011: Reflecting about obstacles and solutions, when doing practice tests, increased likelihood of completing more practice problems among high schoolers
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Active reflection
How will I accomplish my goals?
Destin & Oyserman, 2010: Representing career success as dependent on education level increased the likelihood of completing an school assignment among disadvantaged 7th graders
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
How will I accomplish my goals?
Christiansen et al., 2010: Reflecting, planning, and setting goals to exercise more increased physical capacity among chronic pain patients over three months
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Active reflection
How will I accomplish my goals?
Chen et al., 2017: Reflecting on, and planning to use learning resources improved performance in statistics among undergraduate students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Active reflection
How will I accomplish my goals?
Prestwich et al., 2010: Receiving text reminders and planning when and where to walk increased adults' physical activity over one month
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Active reflection
Where and when will I accomplish my goals?
Prestwich et al., 2008: Learning about the health risks of saturated fat and planning to avoid it decreased its consumption one month later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
Where and when will I accomplish my goals?
Prestwich et al., 2005, Study 2: Planning when and where to breast self-examine with their partners especially increased its likelihood among female undergraduates one month later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Active reflection
Where and when will I accomplish my goals?
Prestwich et al., 2005, Study 1: Planning when and where to breast self-examine increased its likelihood among female undergraduates one to six months later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Active reflection
Where and when will I accomplish my goals?
Nickerson & Rogers, 2010: Planning when and where to vote increased turnout among citizens
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Civic behavior
Prompting new meanings
Where and when will I accomplish my goals?
Milkman et al., 2011: Planning when and where to vaccinate increased vaccination rates among employees
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
Where and when will I accomplish my goals?
Leventhal et al., 1965: Planning when and where to get a tetanus shot increased the shot rates among college students, regardless of induced fear
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
Where and when will I accomplish my goals?
Hulleman et al., 2017, Experiment 2: Relating psychology course with their lives increased final exam scores and interest in psychology among undergraduates who performed poorly on the first exam
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Where and when will I accomplish my goals?
Harris et al., 2014: Affirming values or implementing if-then strategies increased fruit and vegetable consumption among adults one week to three months later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Active reflection
Where and when will I accomplish my goals?
Ehret & Sherman, 2018: Affirming values and implementing if-then strategies to reduce drinking increased abstinence rates among undergraduates over two weeks
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Active reflection
Where and when will I accomplish my goals?
Storms & Nisbett, 1970: Attributing arousal to inert pill decreased time to fall asleep among insomniacs
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
Are current or upcoming emotions, states, and experiences negative and undermining?
Redelmeier et al., 2003: Leaving colonscope in rectum for additional three minutes increased likelihood of agreement for another examination among patients after five years
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
Are current or upcoming emotions, states, and experiences negative and undermining?
Ramirez & Beilock, 2011: Writing their thoughts and feelings about final exam increased test scores among 9th grade students who were anxious test-takers
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Active reflection
Are current or upcoming emotions, states, and experiences negative and undermining?
Job et al., in prep: Reinterpreting willpower as unlimited improved academic regulation among college students who struggled with self-control a month later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Increasing commitment through action
Are current or upcoming emotions, states, and experiences negative and undermining?
Jamieson et al., 2016: Reading scientific articles regarding the adaptive functions of stress improved math grades among community college students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Are current or upcoming emotions, states, and experiences negative and undermining?
Jamieson et al., 2010: Reappraising arousal as beneficial increased performance on math section of GRE up to three months later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Are current or upcoming emotions, states, and experiences negative and undermining?
Pennebaker & Francis, 1996: Writing about deepest thoughts and emotions about college decreased doctor visits and improved GPA among first-year students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Active reflection
Are current or upcoming emotions, states, and experiences negative and undermining?
Pennebaker et al., 1990: Writing about deepest thoughts and emotions about college reduced doctor visits and increased homesickness and worry about college among first-year students over four months
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Active reflection
Are current or upcoming emotions, states, and experiences negative and undermining?
Hülsheger et al., 2012: Teaching emotional-regulation techniques increased cash tips among hairdressers over ten days
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Work
Active reflection
Are current or upcoming emotions, states, and experiences negative and undermining?
Hülsheger et al., 2012: Teaching mindfulness meditation reduced emotional exhaustion and increased job satisfaction among employees over ten work days
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Well-Being
Active reflection
Are current or upcoming emotions, states, and experiences negative and undermining?
Harvey-Knowles et al., 2017: Writing about feelings and thoughts of cancer experiences reduced self-reported depression among spousal caregivers
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Active reflection
Are current or upcoming emotions, states, and experiences negative and undermining?
Halperin et al., 2013: Teaching to reappraise experiences of anger reduced expression of negative emotions towards Palestinians among Jewish Israelis months later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Intergroup relationships
Active reflection
Are current or upcoming emotions, states, and experiences negative and undermining?
Frattaroli et al., 2011: Writing thoughts and feeling about graduate school entrace exams decreased depressive symptoms among students days later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Active reflection
Are current or upcoming emotions, states, and experiences negative and undermining?
Crum et al., 2013: Teaching about the positive effects of stress reduced anxiety and improved work-related skills among financial service employees days later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Prompting new meanings
Are current or upcoming emotions, states, and experiences negative and undermining?
Cameron & Nicholls, 1996: Writing feelings about entering college or formulating coping plans reduced doctor visits among incoming college students within a month
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Active reflection
Are current or upcoming emotions, states, and experiences negative and undermining?
Brady et al., 2018: Reappraising anxiety and stress as positive emotions improved grades and decreased negative reactions among first-year college students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Are current or upcoming emotions, states, and experiences negative and undermining?
Ben-Zeev et al., 2017: Teaching about stereotype threat reduced stereotype-related concerns and improved semester grades among undergraduate minorities in STEM
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Education
Prompting new meanings
Are current or upcoming emotions, states, and experiences negative and undermining?
Spera et al., 1994: Writing feelings regarding job loss decreased time taken to find new job among unemployed middle-aged professionals over 6 weeks
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Active reflection
Are negative past emotions, states, and experiences ongoing and undermining?
Petrie et al., 1995: Writing about personal traumas increased antibody levels and improved immune function among medical students 4 to 6 months later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Active reflection
Are negative past emotions, states, and experiences ongoing and undermining?
Pennebaker & Beall, 1986: Writing about traumatic life events increased negative mood and blood pressure suring those days, but decreased self-reported illness among college students the next 6 months
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Active reflection
Are negative past emotions, states, and experiences ongoing and undermining?
Pennebaker et al., 1988: Describing traumatic experiences improved immune function and reduced doctor visits among undergraduates over 6 weeks
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Active reflection
Are negative past emotions, states, and experiences ongoing and undermining?
Park et al., 2016, Study 2: Writing about distressing life experiences increased self-distancing from stressful event among college students one to six months later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Well-Being
Active reflection
Are negative past emotions, states, and experiences ongoing and undermining?
Park et al., 2016, Study 1: Writing about distressing life experiences increased self-distancing from stressful event and reduced emotional reactivity among college students one month later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Well-Being
Active reflection
Are negative past emotions, states, and experiences ongoing and undermining?
Murray & Segal, 1994: Writing about traumatic life experiences reduced painful thoughts, but increased negative mood among undergraduates
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Well-Being
Active reflection
Are negative past emotions, states, and experiences ongoing and undermining?
Lutgendorf et al., 1994: Discussing stressful topics weekly increased immune function among college students
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Active reflection
Are negative past emotions, states, and experiences ongoing and undermining?
Kross & Ayduk, 2008, Study 2: Adopting self-distanced perspective when recalling overwhelming experiences reduced depressive and recurring thoughts among young adults a week later
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Well-Being
Active reflection
Are negative past emotions, states, and experiences ongoing and undermining?
Kirk et al., 2011: Writing thoughts about important work experiences increased emotional intelligence and decreased workplace perpetration of incivility among adults
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Well-Being
Active reflection
Are negative past emotions, states, and experiences ongoing and undermining?
King, 2001: Writing about most traumatic experience and ideal future self decreased illness among college student over five months
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Need to Understand
Health
Active reflection
Are negative past emotions, states, and experiences ongoing and undermining?
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Health
Active reflection
Are negative past emotions, states, and experiences ongoing and undermining?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Greenberg & Stone, 1992: Writing about disclosed or undisclosed traumas decreased physical symptoms of severe trauma among students
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Health
Active reflection
Are negative past emotions, states, and experiences ongoing and undermining?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Greenberg et al., 1996: Writing about personal or imagined trauma reduced doctor visits among undergraduate women over a month
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Health
Active reflection
Are negative past emotions, states, and experiences ongoing and undermining?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Francis & Pennebaker, 1992: Writing about traumatic experiences reduced absenteeism and stress among university employees
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Health
Active reflection
Are negative past emotions, states, and experiences ongoing and undermining?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Esterling et al., 1994: Writing or talking about stressful events improved immune system function among undergraduate students after one week
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Health
Active reflection
Are negative past emotions, states, and experiences ongoing and undermining?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Christensen et al., 1996: Describing trauma or stressful experiences increased immune system function among undergraduate students with high levels of hostility
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Health
Active reflection
Are negative past emotions, states, and experiences ongoing and undermining?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Booth et al., 1997: Describing thoughts and feelings about traumatic experiences improved immune system function among medical students
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Well-Being
Prompting new meanings
Do I think and feel positively about myself?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Taylor et al., 2017: Cultivating positive emotions improved psychological well-being among individuals who sought clinical treatment for anxiety or depression
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Well-Being
Active reflection
Do I think and feel positively about myself?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2006: Visualizing best possible self and expressing gratitude increased positive mood and improved emotional states among college students
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Well-Being
Active reflection
Do I think and feel positively about myself?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Seligman et al., 2005: Reflecting on positive events and identifying signature strengths increased happiness and reduced depressive symptoms among website visitors for six months
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Well-Being
Active reflection
Do I think and feel positively about myself?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Lyubomirsky, et al., 2011: Expressing optimism by visualizing ideal self and conveying gratitude through writing improved well-being among students after six months
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Well-Being
Active reflection
Do I think and feel positively about myself?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Lyubomirsky et al., 2004, Study 2, described in Lyubomirsky et al., 2005: Expressing gratitude through writing increased overall happiness among students after six weeks
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Well-Being
Active reflection
Do I think and feel positively about myself?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Layous et al., 2013: Reflecting about their best possible selves increased social connectedness among college students over 4 weeks
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Health
Active reflection
Do I think and feel positively about myself?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
King, 2001: Reflecting about their best future selves improved subjective well-being among college students after 3 weeks
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Health
Active reflection
Do I think and feel positively about myself?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Emmons & McCullough, 2003, Study 3: Expressing gratitude through writing increased life satisfaction among adults with neuromusclar disease over 3 weeks
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Health
Active reflection
Do I think and feel positively about myself?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Emmons & McCullough, 2003, Study 2: Expressing gratitude through writing increased likelihood of offering emotional support among college students over 2 weeks
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Health
Active reflection
Do I think and feel positively about myself?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Emmons & McCullough, 2003, Study 1: Expressing gratitude through writing increased well-being and decreased illness among health psychology students over 10 weeks
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Health
Active reflection
Do I think and feel positively about myself?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Chancellor et al., 2015: Recalling positive events through writing increased happiness and work efficiency among Japenese employees
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Well-Being
Active reflection
Do I think and feel positively about myself?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Boehm et al., 2011: Expressing optimism or conveying gratitude increased life satisfaction over one month later among Anglo Americans, Asians only benefitted when conveying gratitude
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
Who do I not want to be, become, or be confused with?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Hameiri et al., 2018, Experiment 2: Representing absurd extreme right-wing views increased willingness to reevaluate beliefs about conflict among right-wing Israelis
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
Who do I not want to be, become, or be confused with?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Hameiri et al., 2016: Representing absurd extreme right-wing views of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict to Israelis reduced support for aggressive policies
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Intergroup relationships
Prompting new meanings
Who do I not want to be, become, or be confused with?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Hameiri et al., 2014: Representing absurd extreme right-wing views of the Israeli-Palestine conflict increased desires for peace among right-wing Israelis over one year
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Health
Prompting new meanings
Who do I not want to be, become, or be confused with?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Berger & Rand, 2008: Posting flyers linking alcohol consumption to grad students reduced drinking among undergraduates
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Education
Active reflection
Who could I become?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Oyserman et al., 2006: Reflecting on their future selves improved school behavior and performance among low-income eighth graders over two years
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Civic behavior
Prompting new meanings
Who could I become?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Gerber et al., 2017: Representing voting as an identity had no effect on the 2015 primary election voter turnout
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Civic behavior
Prompting new meanings
Who could I become?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Gerber et al., 2016: Representing voting as an identity had no effect on the 2014 primary election voter turnout
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Work
Prompting new meanings
Who could I become?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Campos et al., 2017: Developing a mindset of innovative behavior increased success among Togolese microbusiness owners over two years
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Work
Prompting new meanings
Who could I become?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Cable et al., 2013, Study 1: Reflecting on their past, present, and future selves increased customer satisfaction and employee retention among call center employees over six months
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Civic behavior
Prompting new meanings
Who could I become?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Bryan et al., 2011, Experiment 3: Representing voting as an identity increased voter turnout among New Jersey voters
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Civic behavior
Prompting new meanings
Who could I become?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Bryan et al., 2011, Experiment 2: Representing voting as an identity increased voter turnout among California voters
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Education
Direct labeling
Who am I?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Miller et al., 1975, Study 2: Receiving positive performance feedback improved math grades among 2nd grade students
Need to Understand
What is the Person Trying to Understand? 
Education
Direct labeling
Who am I?
Selves (My Own and Others') 
Miller et al., 1975, Study 1: Commending, rather than encouraging, good behavior decreased littering among 5th grade students